Foreign Aid Essay Example For Students

Foreign Aid Essay As time progresses humankind seeks to better itself. We strive to make life easier, faster, and more efficient. Currently we have telescopes that can see objects light years away, satellites that can track you around the planet, cars that adjust the seat and steering wheel to separate drivers, and computers that fit in your hand and perform a million calculations a second. But not everyone in this world has this technology. In parts of the world there are people who are still advancing, they are hundreds of years behind the technological leaders of this world. They only have the simple hand tools we discarded decades ago. They might have cars and trucks but those are technologies developed elsewhere. These people are falling behind in the world and appear to be falling faster. The people in the country are hungry and in need of jobs but we cannot be responsible for their welfare. We cannot make them dependant on our handouts they need to become educated and learn to support themselve s within their borders. United States foreign aid is a bad thing because it hurts their economies, creates over-population, and we spend money that could be used closer to home. United States aid hurts Third World countries because we blanket them in security and their economic problems remain hidden. Their failing economic system will not collapse as long as we keep feeding them money. The point of foreign aid is to help the country get back on its feet, and they never will if they never fix their broken economic system. The country can sit and ignore the underlying problems because they no longer have to worry about the screwed up system they have, as long as the United States keeps pumping the money in they wont have to worry. This will trap the United States into unending aid. We will never turn our back on a country in need, and if they start to fail because we withdraw our money we will just reinstate it. Between 1945 and 1983 the U.S. gave away $321 billion in foreign assistance, concessional loans, military aid, and humanitarian assistance. (Cato Policy Report, 1991) The Clinton administration task force admitted that, Despite decades of foreign assi stance, most of Africa and parts of Latin America, Asia and the Middle East are economically worse off today than they were 20 years ago. (Conservative Chronicle, 1994)United States financial aid does not help the problem it stabilizes it until its withdrawn. Another factor of foreign aid that hurts the aided country is over-population. The biggest cause of over population is sending foreign countries supplies of food. The land can only support so many people and their technology does not allow for surplus. Naturally when you run out of food the population will cease to grow. Adding food to a country increases the amount of people that can live in the country. Because there is more available food the population will grow thereby crowding the country causing a scarcity of resources such as clean water, growing room for food, and jobs. When the availability of food increases people become less dependent on their private farms. This can allow them the opportunity to move into the citie s causing over-crowding and increasing the size of slums. If the United States continues to give food to these countries the population will continue to grow thus increasing the demand for food. What needs to occur is farmers in the country need to increase the amount of food the farms yield so they can support themselves. To quote Mr. Slattery, If you give a man a fish hes not hungry for a day, if you teach a man to fish he will never be hungry again. A final reason why we shouldnt aid Third world countries is, if the government would stop sending supplies and money to foreign countries there would be less money within the country. Money that we could use to use therefor allowing us to get out of our deficit, create jobs, and give more money to the poor people of our country. The amount of food that exported to needy countries can be used to stop starvation in our country. We have this enormous surplus of food that can be used just as well here as abroad. The people in starving cou ntries need to learn how to maximize their food production and create the surplus needed to allow them time to educate themselves. Free handouts affect the country that is giving and receiving. We lose food that can be given to our needy and it helps inflate their population. Government expenditures on foreign aid as a proportion of the GDP grew from nineteen percent in 1961 to thirty-five percent in 1985. (Cato Policy Report, 1991)On the flip side there are some reasons why we should aid other countries in need. Foreign aid remains an extension of the American character. It is human nature to help others in need. Americans feel compassion for poverty stricken people, and they want to try and raise the living status of less-fortunate people to a level similar to their own. Look at all the charities in the world that help needy people. The money donated has saved millions of children over the years. The infant mortality rate is dropping in Third World countries, and hope is rising. A iding helpless people makes Americans feel good about themselves and increases the chances of survival of children in underdeveloped countries all over the world. .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 , .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 .postImageUrl , .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 , .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233:hover , .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233:visited , .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233:active { border:0!important; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233:active , .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233 .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u1af9c32648dafd89b1e97ca244254233:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The great depression Essay SummarySending money to foreign countries for aid also helps setup small makeshift hospitals to help people stricken by diseases that normally would not be fatal in the United States. The money and doctors sent to these countries have stopped epidemics of the flu from wiping out children that normally wouldnt have to worry that a cold could kill. Smallpox for example was only lingering in countries that couldnt afford the vaccinations to eradicate it. With the United States intervention smallpox has been eliminated from even these poor countries. This improves the quality of life dramatically, and reduces the amount of death. The helping hand of the United States is making smaller differences like this that are slowly improving the quality of Third World inhabitants lives. The third reason why the United States should aid other countries is that we have a surplus of food in this country. Americans are the most overweight people in the world. , we have the food to spare. The farming technology within our country is advances to the point that only a few farmers and machines are needed to run farms that are hundreds of thousands of times the size of farms in third world countries. American farmers want to sell their extra crop rather than scale back operations. The easiest way to get rid of food in a country full of overfed people is to give it to the underfed people. The United States government buys this food and ships it to countries that are hungry. In this way our farmers make more money and stimulate our economy. So by sending food out of the country we are also helping ourselves. Americans are compassionate? How is it we feel sorry for people in other countries and can ship ton after ton of food to starving countries, but we dont feel quite sorry enough to give that food to starving people in our own country. The food is also choking the starving country. Overpopulation is the biggest problem in Third World countries. We are encouraging over growth within these countries and that is hurting more than it is helping. It is good that we care for them but supplying food is not the way to go about fixing it. In 1985 thirty-five percent of our GDP was being spent on helping other countries with their problems. The amount we send grows every year. If the United States would apply these funds to its own problems we could eliminate famine and unemployment within our borders. Second, eliminating diseases within these countries has its downside also. The population in Third World countries was originally controlled by lower amounts of food and disease, now we are eliminating those barriers. Without those factors in the ecosystem population has skyrocketed. Normally the environment wouldnt allow more people than it could support, we are actually causing more famine by packing the land with extra people to feed. If the fifty percent of the children dont die from disease like they used to, you now have twice as many new people to feed. When we withdraw our aid the land will not support that number of people and they will start to die off. If that ever starts to happen that compassion factor will kick in and Americans will throw more money out and start the cycle all over again. Finally, the surplus of food in this country would be more helpful in eliminating hunger in our country. If we continue to send food to starving countries we are not encouraging them to improve themselves we just make them dependant on handouts. We need to reserve the food for starving people in out country. The food sent overseas to Third World countries is also encouraging over population. People arent starving as much anymore so they are multiplying and creating more people to starve, unless we increase our aid and its cost to us. The solution is to stop sending the food. .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef , .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef .postImageUrl , .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef , .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef:hover , .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef:visited , .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef:active { border:0!important; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef:active , .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub408be903f0040f5cd26f80c8f2af5ef:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Hippie culture EssayBecause it causes overpopulation, hurts foreign economies, and spends money that could be used closer to home, United States aid is not a good thing. Although the United States is known as the helping hand throughout history, foreign aid is not helping as much as it is hurting other countries. These countries shouldnt be given money and food, but rather be educated as to ways they can improve themselves. Once the aid runs out they will need to fend for themselves. If we were to give them some of our technologies and educate them, we would make a bigger difference. Foreign aid is not a necessary thing that the United States has to partake in. We need to adjust our techniques for helping other countries rather than dumping money and food on a problem and hope it cures itself. Bibliography:

James Jerome Hill Essay Example

James Jerome Hill Essay James J. Hill was a self-made millionaire; through hard work and determination he came back from losing an eye to becoming the Railroad Tycoon.Hill went through many professions and dreams, but it was the railroad and his family that stole his heart forever.Among other things Hill wanted to be a doctor, a steamboat officer, and of course a Railroad Tycoon.However what set him apart from the crown was his ability to do what all others had failed, to build a population around a railroad, and not a railroad around the population. James J. Hill was born on September 16, 1838 in Rockwood, Ontario.When he was very young Hill was shot in the eye with an arrow leaving him permanently blind in one eye.James J. Hill then moved to St. Paul, at the age of 18, determined to be a trapper, but he soon became fond of the city, and decided to start a steamboat company.James. J. Hill then went on to marry Mary Theresa Mehegan, together they had 10 children, of which 1 died at infancy.They had 3 boys l eaving 7 girls.James J. Hill died in St. Paul, MN on May 29, 1916 at the age of 77 years old. The death of James J. Hills father interrupted his early education, but later he returned to school at Rockwood Academy, who gave him free tuition.Between the time his father died and the time he returned to school, he was working to help support his struggling family, as a clerk at the age of 14. James J. Hillsfirst job was as a clerk, this taught him how to use and invest money to make the greatest profits.He then went on to work as an agent for the St. Paul and Pacific Railroad.Here he realized that the wood that they were using for fuel was not as efficient as coal.So he and other set up a fuel, freighting, merchandising, and warehouse company known as Hill, Griggs, Company.This company had a well-established monopoly over the fuel business in St. Paul and the nearby region.He then set up a steamboat business th

Free Essays on Final Thoughts

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Paper Crafting Assistance from the Professionals

Paper Crafting Assistance from the Professionals â€Å"What is an English essay?† While this sounds like the easiest thing on the planet, we often get asked this question. As a student, you know the drill! There’s no way you will evade crating an English paper. This is just one of those essays that you have to write at one point in your academic life. Are you confident that you have the necessary skills to complete this paper? Do you even have the time to write this paper by yourself? Are you certain that you will ace this paper? Most students cannot craft their papers for varied reasons. First, they lack time to handle their assignments because they are tied up with other responsibilities, such as studying for exams, going to class, and completing other papers. Probably, they just want to relax and have a good time with friends. Other students are not skilled enough to complete these papers by themselves. They lack the know-how to craft these assignments, and they need assistance or a guide on how to go about it. Our service is the answer to all your assignment problems. Leave your paper to us if you’re looking for a professional writer that can create a persuasive paper and meet your deadlines. Still, if you need help on how to write an English essay step by step, you’ve come to the right place. We will guide you that way you can create an outstanding paper for yourself. Guidelines on How to Write an English Essay Creating such a paper may sound easy, but it isn’t. You must put several things into consideration before starting. If you need guidance on how to create such a paper, then you’ve come to the right place. Our service understands how students struggle with creating even the simplest papers. It is very normal to struggle with creating an essay even if you have been doing it for decades. However, once you master how to do it, it gets easier. Our guide is intended to make life easier for you. We have compiled a list of guidelines and tips that can help you while writing an English essay. Make use of them to increase your chances of getting a good grade in your assignment. The Guide on How to Start an English Essay Now that your professor has handed you an assignment, you are conflicted on how to begin an English essay. The first thing that you need to understand is what you are being asked of. Do you understand what the question or topic expects of you? There are important terms that you have to look out for since they act as guidelines on how you should come up with your response to the topic question. Comprehending what is expected if you will not only enable you to structure your paper properly, but it will also show you the direction in which you should take your research to answer the questions effectively. If you are to write on a topic of your choice, make sure you choose something that you’re passionate about, but it still has to be relevant. Next, research on the topic. If you intend to achieve high marks, make use of academic research articles. You must go through several sources before choosing the most relevant for your topic. Once you’re done conducting your research , create an outline of how your paper will look like. These are requirements that have to be adhered to in the structure of an English essay. Even though questions may be different and education levels may be varied, all these papers will follow a similar structural basis every time. Crafting successfully is dependent upon comprehending the structural rules. Your paper has to begin with an introduction which will sum up how you intend to answer the question, and the course that your arguments will follow. The main body will follow what has been set out in your introduction. Present your arguments coherently and logically, and link your paragraphs so that they flow from one to the next. Finally, the conclusion should sum up what you have presented and deliver the message that you intend the audience to take away with them. Next, refine your arguments. Ensure that once you’re done with the first draft of your paper, you refine your arguments. Make sure that they particularly address the question, and that your content flows coheren tly. You can take a break once you’re done, and start later after you’ve relaxed. Alternatively, you can read out your text aloud to judge on the flow and coherence. Finally, make sure that your paper adheres to the basic formatting guidelines that have been laid out by your professor. If you fail to do so, there is a chance that you perform poorly despite crafting a good paper. Additional Tips for Writing an English Essay You must utilize these tips on how to make an English essay. Make the most out of them if you hope to attain an excellent grade: Planning Will Come in Handy Even if it will seem like a waste of time, especially when you’re caught up with other academic responsibilities, it is always important that you brainstorm for a while before starting your paper. This will enable you to come up with the best-supporting ideas, instead of those that just come into mind, then position them in your paper accordingly. Make sure that your best supporting idea which makes the strongest case, and the one that you have the most knowledge on coming first. Even if you have the best-written paper, you can fail because you placed your arguments ineffectively. Aim for Variety Make use of vocabulary and sentences of varying complexity. Stop using the same words over and over. Constant Practice Good writing cannot happen overnight. Constantly practice mastering the art of crafting good English essays. 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Corporate governance - Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Corporate governance - Law - Essay Example According to Andreasson (n.d. P 2) corporate governance in emerging markets is a critical issue where companies are constantly struggling for investors to raise capital base. About the scope of governance, Abdulla and Valentine (2009, p89) point out that â€Å"corporate governance includes all types of firms and its definitions could extend to cover all of the economic and non-economic activities† p 89. This needs to be embraced by the UK in its bid to improve its corporate governance. One way by which the UK can improve its corporate governance as shall be discussed in diversity is by incorporation of corporate governance and the complexity theory which encompasses many approches integrated into the governance system. Because the perception that the stakeholders about a company is an elastic issue that depends on the corporate image created by the company there has been experienced varying business performances by corporations in the financial and stock markets. This has led to the new wave seeking to transform the way legislative and procedural policies are made and employed by companies to stay afloat in the internal and external market. Therefore board actions on corporate management need effective monitoring so as to avert the corporate failures resulting from traditional corporate strategies as experienced in the UK capital markets. Their short-term policies are feared to be the main reasons for the low efficiency and low return on invested capital yet the companies largely depend on public equity financing amidst their many financial access options (DoB 2010, p 10). A look at the Bitish policies on company opertations shows an emphasis on the accountability of the directors to the shareholders while they set the policies for the company (FRC 2010, p9-11). However the weakness in the Companies Act 2006 which allows for freedom by companies to adjust corporate rules using their constitutions remotely diminishes the corporate sense of the shareholder s who are the main contributors of investment through public equity funds. This calls for real improvement that will address the weaknesses that have led to failure of many corporate organisations which lies in the role played by the company directorate (Kiarie 2007, p2). Kiarie identifies the non-specificity of the management roles in the companies especially the non-executive directors (NEDs) whom she says must play an important role in checking the power wielded by CEOs based on their independance and autonomy. This is possible if the companies willingly offer relevant and sufficient information other than the one the NEDs solicit for use in decision making and judgment. Therefore the NED should be part of the shareholder pressure on the corporate board that would enhance the value of the firm in form, of policies and strategies (Brenner, 2008 p 3-5). It is realised that most companies are reluctant to freely disclose their portfolio in the bid to cut on costs and keep competitor s at bay a fact that has made the shareholdders and the NEDs in darkness on the exact positioning of the company in the corporate market in what Brenner calls â€Å"free rider problem† p 5. This in a way has been the reason for mixed responses from stakeholders ranging

Conference paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Friedrich Nietzsche Essay Example for Free

Friedrich Nietzsche Essay Existentialism provides a moving account of the agony of being in the world. The spirit of existen- tialism has a long history in philosophy. But it be- came a major movement in the second half of the 20th century. Existentialism is not a systematic body of thought like Marxism or psychoanalysis. Instead, it is more like an umbrella under which a very wide range of thinkers struggled with ques- tions about the meaning of life. Much of the appeal and popularity of Existential- ism is due to the sense of confusion, the crisis, and the feeling of rejection and rootlessness that Euro- peans felt during World War II and its aftermath. Existentialism’s focus on each person’s role in cre- ating meaning in their life was a major influence on the Phenomenological and Humanistic traditions in psychology and on the â€Å"human potential† move- ment that emerged from them. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) said, â€Å"Conquer your- self rather than the world. †. To modern existential- ists this means that the World itself has no real meaning or purpose. It is not the unfolding expres- sion of Human Destiny or a Divine plan, or even a set of natural laws. The only meaning is that which we create by acts of will. To have a meaningful life we have to act. But we should act without hope. Acting is meaningful but it doesn’t create meaning that lasts beyond the acts themselves or beyond our own lifetime. You are what you do – while you are doing it – and then nothing. (Very depressing. ) In The Myth of Sisyphus, Albert Camus (pronounced â€Å"Kam-moo†) (1913-1960) describes life as a kind of hopeless, endless, uphill labor. Hence, the only true problem is that of suicide. Yet, he rejects nihilism; for the human being must fight and never accept defeat. The problem is to be a saint without a God. The last judgment takes place everyday. The human being must do his best, try for what he can within the confinements of his situation. Camus describes Sisyphus condemned by the gods to push a stone up a hill over and over, only to have it roll back down each time he reaches the top. A task that can never be completed. But he finds meaning in the fact that Sisyphus at least gets to decide each time whether to carry on or end it all. Camus says, The struggle itself toward the heights is enough to fill a mans heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy. Although there can never be any meaning in Sisy- phus’ task, there is meaning is choosing each time to continue. Despite encompassing a staggering range of phi- losophical, religious, and political ideologies, the underlying concepts of existentialism are simple: Mankind has free will. Life is a series of choices, creating stress. Few decisions are without any negative conse- quences. Some things are irrational or absurd, without explanation. If one makes a decision, he or she must follow through. Notes on Existentialism by Tanweer Akram. The fundamental problem of existentialism is con- cerned with the study of being. The human beings existence is the first and basic fact; the human be- ing has no essence that comes before his existence. The human being, as a being, is nothing. This nothingness and the non-existence of an essence is the central source of the freedom the human being faces in each and every moment. The human being Notes on Existentialism Compiled for PSY 345 (Fall 2004) Existentialism Notes 2 has liberty in view of his situation, in decisions which makes himself and sets himself to solves his problems and live in the world. Thrown into the world, the human being is con- demned to be free. The human being must take this freedom of being and the responsibility and guilt of his actions. Each action negates the other possible courses of action and their consequences; so the human being must be accountable without excuse. The human being must not slip away from his re- sponsibilities. The human being must take deci- sions and assume responsibilities. There is no sig- nificance in this world, this universe. The human being cannot find any purpose in life; his existence is only a contingent fact. His being does not emerge from necessity. If a human being rejects the false pretensions, the illusions of his existence hav- ing a meaning, he encounters the absurdity, the fu- tility of life. The human beings role in the world is not predetermined or fixed; every person is com- pelled to make a choice. Choice is one thing the human being must make. The trouble is that most often the human being refuses to choose. Hence, he cannot realize his freedom and the futility of his existence. Basically existence is of two types: authentic and inauthentic forms of existence. Authentic existence is contrasted with dynamic and is the being-for- itself, rising from the human beings bad faith, by which the human being moves away from the bur- den of responsibility, through this beliefs in dogma and by regarding himself as subject to outside in- fluences and his actions to be predetermined. There is a striking contrast between the authentic and the inauthentic forms of being; the authentic being is the being of the human being and the inau- thentic being is the being for things. Yet, authentic being is only rarely attained by the human being; still it is what the human being must strive to gain. The inauthentic being-in-itself is characteristically distinctive of things; it is what the human being is diseased with for his failure to see himself as and act according as a free agent and his impotency to reject bad faith. Things are only what they are. But the human being is what can be. Things are deter- mined, fixed, and rigid; the human being is free; he can add essence to his life in the course of his life and he is in a constant state of flux and is able to comprehend his situation. The human being does not live in a pre-determined world; the human be- ing is free to realize his aims, to materialize his dreams; hence, he has only the destiny he forges for himself because in this world nothing happens out of necessity. The human being hides himself from freedom by self-deception, acting like a thing, as if he is a pas- sive subject, instead of realizing the authentic be- ing for the human being; this is bad faith. In bad faith, the human being shelter himself from re- sponsibility by not noticing the dimensions of al- ternative courses of action facing him; in bad faith, the human being behaves as others demand of him by conforming to the standards of accepted values and by adopting roles designed for him; in bad faith, the human being loses the autonomy of his moral will, his freedom to decide; in bad faith, the human being imprisons himself within inauthentic- ity for he has refused to take the challenge of re- sponsibility and the anxiety that comes along with his freedom. Anxiety ascends from the human beings realiza- tion that the human beings destiny is not fixed but is open to an undetermined future of infinite possi- bilities and limitless scope: The emptiness of fu- ture destiny must be filled by making choices for which he alone will assume responsibility and blame. This anxiety is present at every moment of the human beings existence; anxiety is part and parcel of authentic existence. Anxiety leads the human being to take decisions and be committed. The human being tries to avoid this anguish through bad faith. But the free human being, in his authenticity, must be involved; for his own actions are only his, his responsibility is to himself, his being is his own. The human being must be com- mitted. To be committed means not to support this in place of that, but to attach a human beings total- ity to a cause; it is the human beings existential freedom that leads to total commitment. Existentialist thinkers begin from the human situa- tion in the world; the condition of despair, the modes of existence, the human beings tendency to avoid authentic existence, his relation to things, his own body, and to other beings, with whom he can- not come into genuine communication, and the sufferings of life. Starting from the study of being, each existentialist thinkers originate their own doc- trines, with their own emphasis on particular as- pects. Very often their viewpoints is conflicting and sometimes contradictory; yet this philosophi-cal attitude of being, as a whole, can be described as the existentialist movement, which stresses upon the being of the human being. Existentialism Notes 3 Additional Notes on Existentialism Existentialism, philosophical movement or ten- dency, emphasizing individual existence, freedom, and choice, that influenced many diverse writers in the 19th and 20th centuries. Major Themes Because of the diversity of positions associated with existentialism, the term is impossible to define precisely. Certain themes common to virtually all existentialist writers can, however, be identified. The term itself suggests one major theme: the stress on concrete individual existence and, consequently, on subjectivity, individual freedom, and choice. Moral Individualism Most philosophers since Plato have held that the highest ethical good is the same for everyone; inso- far as one approaches moral perfection, one resem- bles other morally perfect individuals. The 19th- century Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard, who was the first writer to call himself existential, reacted against this tradition by insisting that the highest good for the individual is to find his or her own unique vocation. As he wrote in his journal, â€Å"I must find a truth that is true for me . . . the idea for which I can live or die. † Other existentialist writers have echoed Kierkegaards belief that one must choose ones own way without the aid of universal, objective standards. Against the traditional view that moral choice involves an objective judgment of right and wrong, existentialists have argued that no objective, rational basis can be found for moral decisions. The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche further contended that the indi- vidual must decide which situations are to count as moral situations. SubjectivityAll existentialists have followed Kierkegaard in s tressing the importance of passionate individual action in deciding questions of both morality and truth. They have insisted, accordingly, that per- sonal experience and acting on ones own convic- tions are essential in arriving at the truth. Thus, the understanding of a situation by someone involved in that situation is superior to that of a detached, objective observer. This emphasis on the perspec- tive of the individual agent has also made existen- tialists suspicious of systematic reasoning. Kierke- gaard, Nietzsche, and other existentialist writers have been deliberately unsystematic in the exposi- tion of their philosophies, preferring to express themselves in aphorisms, dialogues, parables, and other literary forms. Despite their antirationalist position, however, most existentialists cannot be said to be irrationalists in the sense of denying all validity to rational thought. They have held that rational clarity is desirable wherever possible, but that the most important questions in life are not accessible to reason or science. Furthermore, they have argued that even science is not as rational as is commonly supposed. Nietzsche, for instance, asserted that the scientific assumption of an orderly universe is for the most part a useful fiction. Choice and Commitment Perhaps the most prominent theme in existentialist writing is that of choice. Humanitys primary dis- tinction, in the view of most existentialists, is the freedom to choose. Existentialists have held that human beings do not have a fixed nature, or es- sence, as other animals and plants do; each human being makes choices that create his or her own na- ture. In the formulation of the 20th-century French philosopher Jean Paul Sartre, existence precedes essence. Choice is therefore central to human exis- tence, and it is inescapable; even the refusal to choose is a choice. Freedom of choice entails com- mitment and responsibility. Because individuals are free to choose their own path, existentialists have argued, they must accept the risk and respon- sibility of following their commitment wherever it leads. Dread and Anxiety Kierkegaard held that it is spiritually crucial to rec- ognize that one experiences not only a fear of spe- cific objects but also a feeling of general apprehen- sion, which he called dread. He interpreted it as Gods way of calling each individual to make a commitment to a personally valid way of life. The word anxiety (German Angst) has a similarly cru- cial role in the work of the 20th-century German philosopher Martin Heidegger; anxiety leads to the individuals confrontation with nothingness and with the impossibility of finding ultimate justifica- tion for the choices he or she must make. In the philosophy of Sartre, the word nausea is used for the individuals recognition of the pure contin- gency of the universe, and the word anguish is used for the recognition of the total freedom of choice that confronts the individual at every mo- ment. Existentialism Notes 4 History Existentialism as a distinct philosophical and liter- ary movement belongs to the 19th and 20th centu- ries, but elements of existentialism can be found in the thought (and life) of Socrates, in the Bible, and in the work of many premodern philosophers and writers. Pascal The first to anticipate the major concerns of mod- ern existentialism was the 17th-century French phi- losopher Blaise Pascal. Pascal rejected the rigorous rationalism of his contemporary Rene Descartes, asserting, in his Pensees (1670), that a systematic philosophy that presumes to explain God and hu- manity is a form of pride. Like later existentialist writers, he saw human life in terms of paradoxes: The human self, which combines mind and body, is itself a paradox and contradiction. Kierkegaard Kierkegaard, generally regarded as the founder of modern existentialism, reacted against the system- atic absolute idealism of the 19th-century German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, who claimed to have worked out a total rational understanding of hu- manity and history. Kierkegaard, on the contrary, stressed the ambiguity and absurdity of the human situation. The individuals response to this situation must be to live a totally committed life, and this commitment can only be understood by the indi- vidual who has made it. The individual therefore must always be prepared to defy the norms of soci- ety for the sake of the higher authority of a person- ally valid way of life. Kierkegaard ultimately advo- cated a â€Å"leap of faith† into a Christian way of life, which, although incomprehensible and full of risk, was the only commitment he believed could save the individual from despair. Nietzsche Nietzsche, who was not acquainted with the work of Kierkegaard, influenced subsequent existential- ist thought through his criticism of traditional metaphysical and moral assumptions and through his espousal of tragic pessimism and the life- affirming individual will that opposes itself to the moral conformity of the majority. In contrast to Kierkegaard, whose attack on conventional moral- ity led him to advocate a radically individualistic Christianity, Nietzsche proclaimed the â€Å"death of God† and went on to reject the entire Judeo- Christian moral tradition in favor of a heroic pagan ideal. Heidegger Heidegger, like Pascal and Kierkegaard, reacted against an attempt to put philosophy on a conclu- sive rationalistic basis—in this case the phenome- nology of the 20th-century German philosopher Edmund Husserl. Heidegger argued that humanity finds itself in an incomprehensible, indifferent world. Human beings can never hope to under- stand why they are here; instead, each individual must choose a goal and follow it with passionate conviction, aware of the certainty of death and the ultimate meaninglessness of ones life. Heidegger contributed to existentialist thought an original em- phasis on being and ontology as well as on lan- guage. Sartre Sartre first gave the term existentialism general currency by using it for his own philosophy and by becoming the leading figure of a distinct move- ment in France that became internationally influen- tial after World War II. Sartres philosophy is ex- plicitly atheistic and pessimistic; he declared that human beings require a rational basis for their lives but are unable to achieve one, and thus human life is a â€Å"futile passion. † Sartre nevertheless insisted that his existentialism is a form of humanism, and he strongly emphasized human freedom, choice, and responsibility. He eventually tried to reconcile these existentialist concepts with a Marxist analy- sis of society and history. Existentialism and Theology Although existentialist thought encompasses the uncompromising atheism of Nietzsche and Sartre and the agnosticism of Heidegger, its origin in the intensely religious philosophies of Pascal and Kierkegaard foreshadowed its profound influence on 20th-century theology. The 20th-century Ger- man philosopher Karl Jaspers, although he rejected explicit religious doctrines, influenced contempo- rary theology through his preoccupation with tran- scendence and the limits of human experience. The German Protestant theologians Paul Tillich and Rudolf Bultmann, the French Roman Catholic theologian Gabriel Marcel, the Russian Orthodox philosopher Nikolay Berdyayev, and the German Jewish philosopher Martin Buber inherited many Existentialism Notes 5 of Kierkegaards concerns, especially that a per- sonal sense of authenticity and commitment is es- sential to religious faith. Existentialism and Literature A number of existentialist philosophers used liter- ary forms to convey their thought, and existential- ism has been as vital and as extensive a movement in literature as in philosophy. The 19th-century Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky is probably the greatest existentialist literary figure. In Notes from the Underground (1864), the alienated anti- hero rages against the optimistic assumptions of rationalist humanism. The view of human nature that emerges in this and other novels of Dostoyevsky is that it is unpredictable and per- versely self-destructive; only Christian love can save humanity from itself, but such love cannot be understood philosophically. As the character Alyo- sha says in The Brothers Karamazov (1879-80), â€Å"We must love life more than the meaning of it. † In the 20th century, the novels of the Austrian Jew- ish writer Franz Kafka, such as The Trial (1925; trans. 1937) and The Castle (1926; trans. 1930), present isolated men confronting vast, elusive, menacing bureaucracies; Kafkas themes of anxi- ety, guilt, and solitude reflect the influence of Kierkegaard, Dostoyevsky, and Nietzsche. The in- fluence of Nietzsche is also discernible in the nov- els of the French writers Andre Malraux and in the plays of Sartre. The work of the French writer Al- bert Camus is usually associated with existential- ism because of the prominence in it of such themes as the apparent absurdity and futility of life, the indifference of the universe, and the necessity of engagement in a just cause. Existentialist themes are also reflected in the theater of the absurd, nota- bly in the plays of Samuel Beckett and Eugene Ionesco. In the United States, the influence of exis- tentialism on literature has been more indirect and diffuse, but traces of Kierkegaards thought can be found in the novels of Walker Percy and John Up- dike, and various existentialist themes are apparent in the work of such diverse writers as Norman Mailer, John Barth, and Arthur Miller. Conclusion Existentialists make endless claims. They never bother to show how they reached their claims or if these are, indeed, true. The existentialists when he pretends to present a representation of reality pro- vides no cognition; unverifiable assertions may well express powerful and even necessary emo- tions and passions, but thats best left to the arts and literature. Existentialism is a highly passionate philosophy and, from the outset, seems to aim at a dynamic and fashionable life-style. Also it is mostly unsys- tematic and pays little attention to logic or science. Whatever one makes of its metaphysical claims, one cannot deny that existentialism was able to provide a moving account of the spirit of the con- temporary world and the nausea and frustration of survival. Indeed, it is basically for its richness in psychological insight and its impact on culture that existentialist philosophy will continued to be stud- ied.